All You Need Is.....? Assumptions and Realities in Building Multi-Media Learning Environments and Resources.
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S.E.McNamara
sue.mcnamara@education.monash.edu.au
Faculty of Education, Monash University
J. Strain
Strain@deakin.edu.au
Faculty of Science and Technology, Deakin University
Behind the burgeoning interest within the educational
community in multimedia learning, there are some discrepancies between the
assumptions currently forming the impetus for development and implementation
and the realities in building multimedia learning environments and
resources. These assumptions and
realities are concerned with a number of facets of the multimedia learning
environment, but in this paper we are concentrating on some related to the human factors involved.
The paper looks briefly at the framework of flexible learning and the nature of the multimedia learning environment within that framework. More specifically the paper deals with multimedia potential for education from the small project to the large university wide integration and implementation projects currently occurring in Australian universities. Within this context we explore the role of instructional design and suggest three major considerations which universities undertaking such development must consider if they are to achieve success.
It could be said that Australia is at the forefront in developing
multimedia resources and materials. Further, as the nature and culture of
education changes, business and industry are now turning to education to
provide the various sources of expertise in the development of technology based
programs, resources, materials and systems which address their needs.
Education’s response in developing flexible learning, internationalisation,
lifelong learning, modularistion of courses, undergraduate specialist
multimedia diplomas and degrees across the country (e.g Edith Cowan, RMIT,
Deakin, UTS) and the advertising campaigns of universities which emphasise
their technological edge (e.g. RMIT) are indicators of the burgeoning interest
within the educational community.
As the dimensions of such enterprises expand however there is a
considerable risk that traditional models of design and development are
inadequate to cope with the complexities of the multimedia environment. Furthermore as our understanding of the
human factors involved in the development and implementation of multimedia and technology
based systems unfolds, contemporary thinking in the field of instructional
design is suggesting that several of the traditional assumptions relating to
roles and functions of the designer are no longer appropriate. The remainder of this paper presents a
discussion of some of these assumptions and the realities which should be
considered by institutional management in formulating present and future
planning and development.
In tertiary education institutions today there is an increasing
trend towards ‘flexible learning’. Within the context of flexible learning,
multimedia and technology bases learning systems are seen as central to the
development. We therefore commence our
discussion with a brief exploration of this framework.
Flexible learning means different things to different people but
in general is seen to encompass some diversity of educational thinking and
practice aimed at fundamentally making university course offerings more
accessible in a broader range of educational settings.
Flexibility is recognised in the level of access to courses; the
points of entry to, and exit from courses; the place, time and pace of study;
the form and pattern of interactions among learners, teachers and resources;
the type and variety of resources to support study and communication; the goals
or outcomes of the educating processes and the methods used to measure
achievements and success. (DCAD,
1997)
The term multimedia has also been interpreted differently by many
people but essentially the term describes the presentation of information using
a combination of communicative elements such as text, sound, graphics,
animation and video. The use of multimedia in education is not a recent
development; flipcharts, film, reel to reel tape decks, closed circuit
television, even the overhead projector, all technology mediated forms of
education, have facilitated greater flexibility in the time and /or place of
teaching and learning and in the provision of resource based forms of teaching
suitable for different contexts and student groups for many years.
More recently, however, the essence of the process of creating
multimedia has been the ability for a number of types of information (including
text, sound, graphics, animation, and video) to be able to be combined through
the use of a computer.
The potential to include complex graphics and video images in interactive
computerised multimedia programs is a great strength of today’s multimedia
technology.
Multimedia software has allowed educational developers to
orchestrate and direct the combination of text, graphics, animation, audio and
video images into highly interactive programs. Considerable synergy is obtained by combining these
technologies. The ability to apply the
best communication tools for each component of a communications problem, and to
do so in a cohesive and interactive manner is really the essential strength of
any educational multimedia presentation.
For maximum impact, educational multimedia relies on a non-linear
presentation of information, allowing learners to access data on any topic, in
any order they choose. Instead of
viewing a topic from beginning to end, learners can go to any part of the data
by using their computer as a ‘browser’.
Hypermedia, a primarily
non-sequential database, has the capacity to go any part of the data by
allowing the learner to skip between different destinations within the
database. Multimedia authoring is essentially the general
process of creating linked databases of hypermedia materials. Hypermedia provides the means to navigate or browse through a hypermedia file in an explicit and perceptive
way. A hypermedia ‘author’ (a term that
is difficult to equate with its more conventional use) is able to assist the
learner/reader by providing conceptual links between topics.
A well constructed ‘web page’ is a good example of an effectively
‘linked’ document and although it is relatively simple to create a web page, it
is not so simple to create an effective ‘teaching and learning’ web page. What
goes ‘behind the page or site’ - from a teaching and learning perspective, should
be the major concern of those encouraging such developments.
The assumption then of the simplicity of building a multimedia
learning environment would seem to be questionable. The reality of a complex process dealing with complex cognitive
manipulations is more appropriate and calls for varied expertise in fully
utilising the facilities offered by the technology. In exploring the notion of expertise, we’ll turn now to some of
the the human considerations.
The role of the designer in determining interface and aesthetics
is widely acknowledged as a critical element in the development of any
educational multimedia project. An
educational multimedia project may have great content, but without clearly
organised access to information and a clear, useable and attractive interface,
it may fail to motivate the learner.
Good information and interface design span all educational multimedia
projects. However less widely acknowledged, but arguably, just as essential in
any educational multimedia is good instructional design.
The roles of those working in multimedia are many and varied and
defining the roles itself is largely dependent on the size of the project and
amount of specialisation available. A
project might have Information designer (specialist in organising information),
interface designers (skilled in visual presentation and interaction skills in
the electronic domain) and programmers (who typically script for an authoring
system, some create their own tools or engines).
(Apple, 1994.)
(Despite Apple’s
considerable investment in the education market there is a notable absence of
any reference to an instructional designer.)
It is our contention that any educational multimedia project must
engage an instructional designer/educational developer from the initial
conceptualisation of the project, through its development, formative evaluation
and in meaningful summative evaluation after the product is launched.
In small educational software projects, the instructional
designer, interface designer and graphic designer may often be the same person
and this crossover may prove useful in creating a cohesive product. In the educational multimedia development
process, instructional designers, interface designers, and programmers take the
primary responsibility for developing the educational software prototype. Typically the instructional designer looks
at the content base and organises its presentation in ways that meet the
educational goals and purposes of the project.
Instructional and interface designers may finish most of their work when
a prototype is developed. Programmers
invariably then go on to implement the design.
Programmers may also help optimise user access, media loading and
technical performance on each delivery system but programmers are not able to
optimise the development of new skills, knowledge and attitudes on the
learner’s part. This must be seen as an ongoing role for the instructional
designer/educational developer.
The systematic, reliable, research based methods of the related
fields of educational technology, instructional design and human performance
improvement have all shown that the vital first step of identifying a performance
problem, and determining a clear need for an educational/instructional solution
must be firmly established before the type of product is contemplated.
Unfortunately many educational multimedia software products remain as solutions
awaiting a perceived performance problem.
The second human factor we suggest needs reconsidering is that of the dimensions
of the role of the instructional designer. Definitions such as those put forward by the
Australian Society for Educational Technology (ASET) and the International
Society for Performance and Instruction (ISPI) are perhaps indicative of the
continuum from the immediate learning episode at one end to the more holistic
organisational change at the other end which characterise the work if
instructional design today.
Many designers involved in the field of educational or
instructional technology, work also in the area of performance improvement and
vice versa. These roles, once discrete
are now, like the technologies with which they work, fluid, dynamic and
converging, and whilst traditional tasks undertaken by the designers remain
particularly in the smaller project, larger projects are witnessing the need
for a more holistic consideration of the designer’s potential contribution.
Organisations such as Deakin University define instructional design as
‘a complex process, [which] can essentially be described as a systematic approach to the design and development of educational materials which assist individuals to learn. Instructional design in the context of flexible learning focuses on increasing the accessibility of learning programs through multi-modal forms of study supported by information and communications technologies (DCAD p53).
In the context of such a definition, instructional design must be
viewed from a systems perspective. Deakin
University, like many others has adopted the principles of strategic quality
management to integrate and codify the diverse processes of strategic, quality
and academic planning, evaluation and performance review at both the faculty
and institutional level.
The multimedia learning environment in an SQM context is not only
concerned with the development of the small project or the immediate learning
episode, it must also be framed in considerations such as student management
systems, administrative and academic standards and profiles and the various
levels of department, faculty and university wide developments.
Contemporary thinking and practice in instructional design and performance technology advocates a system that approaches design problems in a global manner that focuses on both internal and external imperatives Rojas, (1997). For example, Layng(1997) argues that project management plays an important role in any instructional design. Similarly, Jonassen, Grabinger and Harris (1997) assert that instructional systems development should be seen as an iterative, rather than a linear process. Jonassen et al (1997) identify what they call four phases:
· divergence - which generates a range of alternative methods for solving problems,
· transformation - which results in the limiting of possible solutions
· convergence - which implements in detailed design and
· use - which completes the general integration of the system.
They maintain that the four phases interelate each of the
subprocesses back to the essential front end analysis. The iterative model suggests that (a) developers of multimedia
learning environments should question the assumptions and applications of
linear models, given the nature of multimedia and (b) be cautious about
assumption that similar procedures and processes hold true for small projects
as those for large enterprises.
One further consideration related to the adoption of a more
holistic model of design is that of the contributory skills and professional
expertise. Current advertisements for
positions within the university sector in multimedia development reflect the
possible lack of understanding of this need as we see advertisements for
computer science graduates, programmers, project managers and such
specialisations endeavouring to fill the need for instructional designers and
the broader multimedia performance technology specialists. Undoubtedly these specialisations are a
necessity, however we would suggest that there is a need for a much broader
skills base in building the multimedia team at an organisationl level.
(McNamara, 1996, McNamara et al, 1995).
Whilst the valuable roles of current teams in tertiary education
is acknowledged here, we would also argue that very often the role of the
instructional designer and the performance technologist, is often compressed,
used inappropriately or considered secondary to other processes and
undertakings, resulting in poor quality materials or integration. As Kaufman (1997) suggests “if we only look
at minute problems, and stick our heads in the organisational sands, we
mortgage our future to those who think and act with a world view” (p66). These world view individuals need to be
involved in the projects we in education are developing, both large scale
integration projects and small scale developments. Further, Brethower(1997) maintains that it is our responsibility
as practitioners to be aware of the required knowledgebase, of our “individual
and collective expertise”(p89) and to be clear in our understanding of the
processes being used and the products and services we are offering. Carr
(1997) takes the notion of the ‘whole’ in building multimedia learning
environments even further in describing the contribution of the area, and its
leadership in realising the ‘cultural’ change in the way in which we approach
work, and in the environments in which we will work. Finally, Banathy (1997) relates these to what are termed
‘emerging organisational characteristics’.
It is in images such as these that the profile of the multimedia
learning environment developer might be found. The final characteristics of instructional design, which are
just beginning to be realised by Universities and tertiary institutions refer
to the social context of design and development.
Whilst the ‘push’ for the adoption of flexible learning and
multimedia has emphasised professional development in academic acquisition of
skills in technology, and tertiary institutions are advertising senior
management positions to hopefully encourage such ‘skill development’, these
organisations seem to have overlooked one of the most important social
characteristics of learning, which instructional design takes for granted, that
of ‘adult learner characteristics and needs’ - nurturing, encouragement,
collegiate, acknowledgment and recognition of individual contributions, a
fundamental in building teams and in the eventuation of quality multimedia learning
environments. The assumption that
psychomotor skills are sufficient for building multimedia learning environments
would seem to critically undervalue their potential. The reality is that such
buildings require a myriad of ‘human understanding’.
Where does the preceding discussion lead us? In brief it is suggesting that educational
institutions in their quest to adopt and entrench new technology based
frameworks for teaching and learning, in forms such as the multimedia learning
environment, urgently need to address the human factors required. Firstly, in small projects they need to
adopt a new model whereby the designer is involved from the commencement of the
project. Secondly they need to adopt a
more holistic view of design, especially at the institutional level and thirdly
they need to consider the human side of development rather than the
technological offerings as a first step in large scale implementation (Goodman,
1997).
Whilst traditionally tasks and roles have been fairly well
defined, current and future problems require new and different viewpoints and
approaches. As to the future, we would
suggest that, if educational institutions are to meet the needs of involvement
and development beyond their own institutional framework, that is with business
and industry then there is also an urgent need for the development of education
and training in Australia which will provide professionals with this knowledge
and skill, and that institutions in themselves must seek to use such professionals.
Banathy, B. (1997) Creating Our Future in an Age of
Transformation. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 10(1) 249-264
Brethower, D.M., (1997) Specifying
a human performance technology knowledgebase. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 10(1) 74-96
Carr, A. (1997)
Performance Technologist Preparation: The role of Leadership Theory. Performance Improvement Quarterly,
10(1) 125-140
Goodman, A. (1997) The
Future of Multimedia: The Optimistic
View/ The Pessimistic View.
SC1204: Desktop Communication in Science
Course Notes Deakin University Website.
Jonassen, D.H., Grabinger, R.S., & Harris, N.D., (1997) Analysing and Selecting Instructional
Strategies and Tactics. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, 10(1) 34-54
Kaufman, R. (1997) Trainers,
Performance Technologists and Environmentalists Performance Improvement Quarterly, 10(1) 66-73
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